Pre-Roman Period

55-54

BC Caesar raids Britain but withdraws. Tacitus comments that Caeser, leaves "revealing, rather than bequeathing, Britain to Rome"

Roman Period

Claudius 41-54

43

Invasion of Britain under Aulus Plautius with four legions, II Augusta, IX Hispana, XIV Gemina and XX Valeria, and auxiliaries (about 40,000 men in all). Landing at Richborough. Battle on the Medway. Native chieftain Caratacus flees to Wales. Plautius pauses to await the emperor Claudius before advancing to Colchester

44-60

Division of the invading army: legion II advances SW, legion TX towards Lincoln, legion XIV and part of XX through the Midlands. Rest of legion XX is kept in a base-fortress at Colchester. Early frontier-line marked by Fosse Way, the Roman road from Exeter to Lincoln

47-52

Ostorius Scapula governor. Campaigns against the Silures (S Wales) and the Ordovices (midand N Wales), who are inspired by Caratacus. Beaten in battle in AD 51 he flees to N Britain, where Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes hands him over to the Romans

52-7

Aulus Didius governor. Further campaigns in Wales. Civil war among the Brigantes and Roman intervention there

Nero 54-68

60-1

King Prasutagus of the Iceni (East Anglia) dies. Rapacity of Roman administrators causes revolt of Boudicca (Boadicea). Petillius Cerialis with part of legion IX is ambushed by Boudicca infantry massacred, but he himself escapes. Suetonius Paulinus, governor, rushes back from Anglesey but not soon enough to save Colchester, London and St Albans from going up in flames. 70,000 inhabitants massacred. Poenius Postumus, acting commander of legion 11, refuses Suetonius' call for assistance and falls on his sword after hearing news of the final battle, when 80,000 Britons are killed. Julius Alpinus Classicianus comes to Britain as the new financial administrator (procurator). Disagreement over policy leads to the recall of Suetonius

66

XIV Gemina withdrawn from Britain for service in the East

Petillius Cerialis, now governor, arrives with new legion, II Adiutrix, and campaigns against the Brigantes, who make their last stand at Stanwick near Scotch Corner

Vespasian 69-79

74-8

Julius Frontinus, governor, finally pacifies the Silures. Legionary fortresses established for II Augusta at Caerleon near Newport

c. 74, and for II Adiutrix at Chester

c. 78.

Arrival in Britain of Gn. Julius Agricola, most famous of the governors of Britain, because of the surviving biography written by his son-in-law Tacitus. Final mopping-up in Wales. Base for legion IX probably established at York

c. 78-9, on site of earlier fort

79

Advance to the Tyne-Solway isthmus

79-96

80

Advance to the Forth-Clyde isthmus, and reconnaissance as far as the Tay. 81 Consolidation, building of forts and roads

82

Invasion of SW Scotland

83-4

Agncola pushes up to the Spey, building forts behind him, including a legionary fortress for legion XX at Inchtuthil. Battle of Mons Graupius, in which 30,000 Caledonians under their leader Calgacus are crushed. Roman fleet circumnavigates Britain

84-5

Recall of Agricola

c. 87

Withdrawal from Scotland north of the ForthClyde isthmus. II Adiutrix withdrawn from Britain about now. Legion XX moves to Chester. c.105 Complete withdrawal from southern Scotland, perhaps after a disaster. Frontier now the Stanegate, Agricola's road across part of the Tyne-Solway isthmus.

Nerva 96-98

No data yet

Trajan 98-117

No data yet

Hadrian 117-138

c.118

Revolt in Britain, perhaps among the Brigantes. Suppressed by 119.

122

Emperor Hadrian visits Britain. Hadrian's Wall and its attendant works begun, under the supervision of the new governor, Aulus Platorius Nepos, who brings another legion to Britain, VI Victrix. Disappearance of legion IX, last recorded in 107/8. Probably withdrawn from Britain c. 121 2, eventually to perish in a disaster in the East, possibly in 161.

Antoninus Pius 138-161 (the Great)

139-42

Antoninus Pius, emperor, orders a new advance in Britain, under Lollius Urbicus. Reoccupation and refortification of S Scotland. Building of the Antonine Wall.

c. 155

Serious revolt, possibly of Brigantes, in N Britain with heavy Roman casualties. Antonine Wall temporally evacuated. Gn. Julius Verus arrives as governor with legionary reinforcements, and rebuilding of Pennine forts burnt in the revolt is begun.

c. 159

Antonine Wall recommissioned.

161-193

c. 163

Another crisis causes the final abandonment of the Antonine Wall and of S Scotland, probably after enemy destruction. Hadrian's Wall fully recommissioned. More rebuilding of forts in N Britain under Calpurnius Agricola (governor c. 162-166).

c. 169

Possible unrest in Wales.

c. 180

The historian Dio records a war in Britain and the death in battle of a Roman general. Invading tribes cross 'The Wall'. 8 this refers to a barrier in commission, and if the Antonine Wall had been evacuated c. 163, this must mean Hadrian's Wall, and the forts at Corbridge and the adjacent sector of the Wall were probably destroyed now. Ulpius Marcellus is sent to Britain, and victory is achieved by 184 (coins).

Severus 193-211

193-7

Clodius Albinus (governor of Britain from c. 191) claims the impcrial throne in 193 and is recognised as assistant (an office with the title of Caesar) by Septimius Severus, who becomes emperor. Growing tension between the two.

Probably at this period most of Britain's towns were equipped with earth defences, in preparation for a province without an army; for in 196 Albinus stripped Britain of troops and crossed to France. Defeated and killed by Severus near Lyon in February 197. Many forts in N Britain burnt, probably by Brigantes, but it is far from certain that Hadrian's Wall was destroyed now; if so, reconstruction was delayed 10 years.

197-201/2

Virius Lupus sent to Britain to restore the situation. Many Pennine forts rebuilt now.

Britain divided into two provinces (Superior and Inferior, Upper and Lower).

205-8

L. Alfenus Senecio, governor, restores Hadrian's Wall and its forts, possibly after a separate uprising from that of 196 7. Further rebuilding of Pennine forts already restored in 197 may also imply this.

208-9

Emperor Severus campaigns in N Scotland to punish the invaders. The time of Alban (c. 208), earliest known British Christian Martyr

210

Caracalla, his son, conducts campaigning because Severus is too ill.

211

Severus dies in York, February 4th. Complete withdrawal from Scotland, but probably not before 213.

Caracalla 211-7

Period of peace. Rebuilding and reorganisation of forts in N Britain continues (until c. 230).

Geta 211-2

Period of peace. Rebuilding and reorganisation of forts in N Britain continues (until c. 230). Towns given stone walls?

Gordian III 238-44

Period of peace.

244-287

From 259 Britain is part of a Gallic separatist empire. Increasing insecurity of SE England because of Saxon pirate raids (c. 275-85). Most of the Saxon Shore forts built either now or under Carausius.

Carausius 287-93

Carausius, commander of the British fleet, declares himself Emperor of Britain and N Gaul (286-7) but loses control of the latter in 293.

Constantius 293-306

Carausius is murdered by his finance-minister Allectus in 294

Constantine 306-37

Constantius (the emperor Maximian's Caesar) recovers Britain (296), and Allectus is killed in battle in S Britain. Constantius sets in hand a lot of rebuilding on Hadrian's Wall, in the Pennine forts and at the legionary fortresses of Chester and York. Perhaps natural decay mainly the reason for the reconstruction. Britain divided into four provinces. Office established of Dux Britanniarum, commander of all land-forces in Britain.

Constantius returns to Britain, now as emperor (306), and campaigns in N Scotland (little archaeological trace). Dies at York, July 25th. His son Constantine proclaimed emperor there. Peace and prosperity returns to Roman Britain.

c300-340 - Roman Britain's "Golden Age"

Roman Britain becomes largely self sufficient and economically prosperous.

313

Constantine recognises Christianity hence it is tolerated by the edict of Milan, and three British bishops attend Council of Arles in 314.

Constans 333-50

342-3

Trouble north of Hadrian's Wall; several outpost forts destroyed. Emperor Constans comes to Britain, and pacifies the Scottish tribes. Strengthening of the forts of the Saxon Shore (Pevensey added to the series) and a new office established, entitled 'Count of the Saxon Shore'.

Constans 350-

360

More trouble with the tribes north of the Wall, the Picts of Scotland and also with the Scots of Ireland. Peace settled by one Lupicinus.

367

Picts, Scots and Saxons combine to attack Britain and Hadrian's Wall overrun. Nectaridius, Count of the Saxon Shore, is killed, and Fullofaudes, Dux Britanniarum, is besieged or captured. Much of the countryside of lowland Britain probably unaffected, though some villas are deserted now.

369

Theodosius comes to Britain to restore the situation. A fifth province, called Valentia, is established (probably in NW Britain). Hadrian's Wall restored and its forts patched up. Some forts in N Britain rebuilt, others abandoned. Signal-stations built on the Yorkshire coast.

Bastions added to some town-walls. The Theodosian reconstruction is evidently effective, for towns and villas continue to show signs of prosperity until the end of the fourth century and beyond.

383

Magnus Maximus, probably Dux Britanniarum, revolts, removes troops from Wales and N. Britain, and crosses to the continent. lrish raids in Wales, but Hadrian's Wall probably remains intact.

395

Stilicho, general of the emperor Honorius, orders some sort of expedition against Scots, Picts and Saxons.

c. 400

Final end of Hadrian's Wall.

401

Troops withdrawn from Britain to defend Italy.

407

Constantine III, a usurper, removes the garrison from Britain, and crosses to the continent.

410

Emperor Honorius tells the British cities to look to their own defence.

c. 446

British cities appeal for military assistance to Aetius, the leading general in Italy at this time ('The Groans of the Britons').

Click here to return to Archaeology UK's Home Page.